Herding Cats: A Descriptive Case Study Of a Virtual Language Learning Community
Research on Virtual Classrooms
This study is based on two premises: 1) virtual language learning communities are possible, and 2) it is possible to generate data on virtual ESL/EFL classes by means of conducting virtual (online) interviews with the students. I establish the first premise first through a review of the literature (Chapter 2: Review of the Literature) and then through a naturalistic study of an online language learning community. The community I studied (Writing Through the Internet or WTI) developed from an asynchronous writing course offered through the Vandar Online Writing School (VOES) into a fair sized (approximately 70 member) language learning community. It has been in continuous session for the past three years and appears to be able to continue for several years more.
Since this is an online class, I used what Hine (1998, 2000a, 2000b)
and B. Mason (1999) call a virtual ethnography. A virtual ethnography
is an ethnography in which the culture being studied is completely on-line.
Most of my data generation was carried out through virtual interviews,
but I also made use of participant observation as well as publicly available
documents and logs of the weekly chat sessions. Due to the nature of the
medium, interviews that are carried out in the virtual world of the Internet
have characteristics that are seldom found in interviews carried out in
the physical world. These differences are described in detail in Chapter
5: Findings and Recommendations.
The basis of using naturalistic inquiry in this study fits what virtual researchers (e.g. Blanchard, 2000; Hine, 1998, 2000a, 2000b; B. Mason, 1996, 1999; Slater, message on online interviews posted to Virtual Methods discussion list, 27 Feb 2000; Waern, message on online interviews posted to Virtual Methods discussion list, 27 Feb 2000) consider the best way to generate data in an online community. It also fits in with the literature on qualitative research (e.g. Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Marshall and Rossman, 1995; J. Mason, 1996) that calls for the researcher to become a part of the community under study.
topThe virtual ESL/EFL classroom appears to be gaining ground. Although dual mode classes (face-to-face classes with an online portion) are still the norm in ESL and EFL classes, virtual language classes are appearing not only in free language schools and classes such as VOES and WTI, but also in universities around the world. Admittedly, most of the university sponsored virtual ESL/EFL classes require physical contact at some point (an orientation meeting, for example), enough virtual classes are appearing to make research into this type of community a more common experience than it was previously.
As mentioned above, my original purpose in this study was to answer the question: “What is it like to study in an online ESL/EFL class.” This study does not attempt to answer the question about how much English the students learn, or how they learn, but what they do in the class and how they do it. Specifically, the question can be reworded as “What happens in an online ESL/EFL community?” This question arose from seeing many teachers offer their services as online teachers/tutors for EFL students. The advertisements fell into groups that included individual teachers who were willing to offer their services for free, individual teachers who charged for such services, and a group of online language schools that either offered free courses or charged a small amount. My plans were to interview students in several virtual classes, making use, especially, of my connections as a teacher in the Vandar Online Language School.
An interest in carrying out online studies has also arisen. More researchers are carrying out virtual research studies, especially in the area of virtual communities (e.g. Blanchard, 2000; Hine, 1998, 2000a, 2000b; B. Mason, 1996, 1999). I considered it important to see how face-to-face studies were different from virtual studies, as well as what problems researchers might face. My study was further modified, then, by the addition of a third question: What differences exist between virtual and “real-world” (face-to-face) interviewing? Although I retained my original plans to conduct virtual (online) interviews as my principal means of generating data, after modifying my research question to ask what happens in the class, I further modified my study by using virtual participant observation and analyzing publicly available written documents concerning this community.
topResearch on Virtual Classrooms
Although most of the literature concentrates on the use of dual mode classes, the studies that deal with completely virtual classes generally focus on specific types of Computer Mediated Communication (Aitsiselmi, 1999; Baym, 1995; Cherny, 1999; Curtis, 1992; Donath, 1999; Frank and Davie, 2001; LaMonica, 2001; Reid, 1991; Smith, 1996). There is, as yet, very little literature that focuses on multimedia virtual classes such as WTI (e.g., Bicknell, 1998; Coghlan, 1999; Coghlan and Stevens, 2000).
topAs discussed below, this study contributes to the research in two principle areas: 1) distance learning in the area of virtual ESL/EFL courses and 2) synchronous interviews in virtual ethnographic studies.
While there is some research on the use of the Internet in language teaching, little has been done on its more recent use as the primary means of offering such classes. The findings of this study have implications for integrating the Internet into the curriculum and for the structuring of on-line ESL/EFL courses.
Also until recently, the use of the Internet was limited to providing resources for traditional (face-to-face) classes (e.g. Dave’s ESL Cafe <http://www.eslcafe.com>). Thanks to increasing opportunities for interaction on the Internet, however, it is becoming possible to not only transmit instruction, but to facilitate communicative and collaborative learning for language students at a distance (e.g. English for Internet (EFI) at StudyCom <http://www.study.com>). Even now, though, the majority of ESL/EFL sites provide either resources for students (or teachers) in traditional classes, or lists of World Wide Web (WWW) links that can be used to find these resources. Except for a few schools, use of the Internet for offering ESL/EFL classes is limited basically to non-credit courses with volunteer teachers.
Hine (2000a, 2000b) recognizes that studies on virtual space have demonstrated
that online environments are cultural contexts in their own right. By
focusing on the social formations that emerge online, these studies have
established this space as a context for doing social research.
A search of the literature on online ESL indicates that the Internet is currently used in TESOL in one of four specific areas:
Second, the Internet as a means for students to interact with other students, to gather information and/or to receive tutoring: Students in ESL/EFL classes can use it to obtain authentic reading material, to gather information, and to communicate with other students around the world (either through such discussion groups as the student SL-Lists operated out of Latrobe, Australia or through keypal services found on many World Wide Web pages). They can also post their own writing to on-line magazines such as WINGS or on their own (or a class) Web page. There are also a large number of Web sites that are basically tutorial areas for students who wish to improve their skills in specific language areas. Among these are the great number of ESL/EFL pages the student can go to for help in his/her language learning career. For examples of this type of site, go to the Tower of English at http://www.towerofenglish.com or Dave’s ESL Cafe on the Web at http://www.eslcafe.com.
Fourth, the Internet as
the primary means of offering ESL/EFL classes: The most recent use
of the Internet for ESL/EFL purposes is the offering of complete ESL/EFL
classes. While courses in reading, writing, and grammar have been offered
for a few years, there has also been a recent increase in the teaching
of both listening comprehension and oral production through Web Based ESL/EFL
courses. While these have traditionally been offered by volunteers who
have an interest in helping ESL/EFL students, now language schools (both
accredited and unaccredited) and institutions of higher education, are
also offering these courses through the Internet.
Further, this study points out the importance of building a sense of community in the virtual language class, thereby transforming the class from a mere language learning exercise to a true language learning community. As shown in my review of the literature (Chapter 2), there is little or no research done on Internet-based language classes. This is especially true in relation to the learner. The few learner-based studies that are currently being published deal principally with the necessity for building community in online language courses.
The second area in which my study is important is in the field of virtual ethnographic studies. Virtual methodology is a fairly new area with relatively little published research (e.g. Blanchard, 2000; Hine 1998, 2000a, 2000b; B. Mason, 1996, 1999; Paccagnella, 1997; Thompson, Straubhaar and Bolyard, 1998). This study demonstrates its importance in virtual methodology by providing insights on the use of synchronous interviewing as a means of generating data in a virtual study.
There are many possible questions related to studying ESL or EFL in a virtual classroom. For the purposes of my study, I selected the following overall question.
Note that this study does not attempt to answer the question about how much English the students learn, or how they learn, but what they do in the class and how they do it.
Arising from this question, however, were two more questions that guided my study.
How does an online ESL/EFL class become a language learning community?
What differences exist between virtual and “real-world” (face-to-face) interviewing?
Although I started with these questions, it should be remembered that naturalistic studies change as they progress. Naturalistic research, according to Lincoln and Guba (1985), is emergent (See also Glesne and Peshkin, 1992). Therefore, these questions were just the starting point in my research. The following subsidiary questions emerged in the course of my study.
• What are the elements of a virtual community?
• How can these elements be fostered so that the community continues to grow?
• What changes occur in the community as it grows?
• What elements of the virtual world affect interviews?
• Can asynchronous interviews aid in increasing data generation?
• How can other means of data generation (e.g. participant observation) aid in developing a virtual study?
Six major findings/insights resulted from this study. While they are listed and briefly described below, a complete description of each finding/insight is located in Chapter 6: Findings and Recommendations.
Although the use of asynchronous communication (email discussion lists and bulletin boards) is a vital part of having a successful online language class, so also is synchronous communication (chat rooms, MOOs, IM clients).1. Multiple means of interaction are important in virtual classes, but each student should be allowed to select which means of interaction he/she will (or will not) use.
2. Change is an inevitable and necessary part of virtual communities if they are to continue for more than a few months.
Change is a necessary adjunct to growth. Without it, any class or community will tend to become static, in which case the members often lose interest in participating and eventually drop out. Change in virtual language learning communities may occur in one of the following three areas: the programs used, the make-up of the community, the community goals.
3. Language learning communities take a conscious effort to develop and maintain.
Before a language learning class can become a language learning community, it needs a sense of community. While a sense of community may occur spontaneously in many virtual spaces, the planning for a virtual class should take this into consideration and plan for it from the beginning.
4. The context-poor medium of virtual interviews requires that the interviewer compensate by paying more attention to the text he/she receives.
The main media difference between virtual and face-to-face interviews is directly related to the amount of data that the interview carries. In face-to-face interviewing, the researcher gathers much of his/her information through non-verbal cues such as body language (gestures, posture, etc.) and tone of voice. The researcher and the informant see each other and can tell if the other is really interested, how the other is dressed or sitting/standing and the expression on the other’s face. None of these cues are available in the virtual interview since it is completely text based. The text only data can be seen in both a negative and a positive light. While there is a lack of non-verbal cues, background data on the community being studied is generally available online.
5. Virtual interviews require attention to time, including the time it takes to conduct the interview, the time it takes to gain the trust of community members, and a consideration of what time zones are involved in any interview.
The virtual researcher needs to consider the time necessary to learn the mores of the group, to learn how to use the programs and chat clients used by the group, and the time it takes to type answers to online interviews. A major factor related to time is the existence of time zones. In a virtual study using synchronous interviewing, the researcher and informant may be as much as 12 hours in difference. If one is awake, the other may well be sleeping. If it is after normal working hours for one, it may be the middle of working hours for the other. Failure to consider this can make for problems in the interview.
Other than audio and video recorders, there are no technical considerations in face-to-face interviews. Virtual interviews, on the other hand, are generally high-tech. They require the equipment, connections, and knowledge, to use the Internet. At a minimum, this means a computer with a modem, an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP), and some experience both in browsing the Internet and in using chat rooms. The following conditions are common in virtual studies.6. Since the members of the community will have a wide range of technological equipment and experience, the teacher (or researcher) needs to adjust his/her plans to what is available to a specific student.
topa. Different media use different amounts of bandwidth.
b. Connection speed varies with the time and the amount of bandwidth being consumed.
c. Internet connections may disappear for what appears to be for no reason at all.
d. Sometimes a particular chat client is unavailable.
Every study begins with at least one assumption. The assumptions for this study are, first, that community building is possible within a virtual language class and second, that it is possible to generate useful data through the medium of a virtual ethnography.
There is also considerable research concerning my second assumption, that it is possible to generate useful data through the medium of a virtual ethnography. Among those who have reported on virtual studies are Hine (1998, 2000a, 2000b), B. Mason (1996, 1999) and Paccagnella (1997). It has become common enough that the posters on the virtual-methods discussion list commonly discuss how to use various ethnographic techniques. For example, during the month of February 2000, there was a fairly active discussion on virtual interviews. In this discussion, four posters, Bennett, Kendall, Slater, and Waern, discussed both the negative (as well as positive) aspects of virtual interviews, and how to overcome the negative aspects.
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I recognized four potential limitations to my study.
The first was the context-poor environment of virtual communication. As mentioned later, text-only communication lacks the non-verbal and paralinguistic cues that are found in face-to-face communication. In addressing this potential limitation, I agreed with Blanchard (2000) and Thompson, Straubhaar and Bolyard (1998) that, while text-only communication may lack many of the cues found in face-to-face communication, in some ways, the lack of cues can be useful in forcing the researcher and informant to make an effort to be sure that they say what they actually mean.
A second potential limitation is the ability of participants in a virtual community to adopt any persona they wish. Participants in a virtual community can adopt whatever persona they need for the communication act of the moment. The question then arises as to whether the use of pseudonyms would affect the ability of the researcher to generate the necessary data about the community. I reasoned that, just as people adopt masks in face-to-face situations, so also, the use of pseudonyms should have no negative effect on a virtual study. People will adopt the persona necessary no matter what the environment is. At the same time, when a minor adopts the persona of an older person, it may lead to observation of or participation by informants who are legally protected, and therefore may cause problems for the researcher. The use of voice is only one way to protect against this type of problem.
A third potential limitation was the need for high-end technology to participate in both the community I was studying and in the interviews I had planned. I saw the possibility the requirement for fairly high-end equipment and software might limit me to interviewing only those community members who had the requisite hardware. I reasoned that members of the community would have the requisite hardware and software since they were needed to participate in the class. I also reasoned that I could match the media used to conduct my interviews to the level of equipment and software of the participants.
A fourth limitation is based on my philosophy that language is best learned by using the language to communicate with others. This communication should be related to topics of mutual interest and be used in as natural a context as possible. To do this, it is important to develop communities in which the participants can discuss topics and learn about each other. Further, it is helpful for the students to use language to teach others how to carry out activities. In this way, meaning can be negotiated and the students can both improve their command of the language, but can also demonstrate their mastery of the communication skills they are trying to develop.
At the same time, community is not the only necessary element in language learning. It is also necessary for the teachers to provide both the needed comprehensible input (i+1) (Krashen, 1985), as well as the opportunity to produce the comprehinsible output (Pica, 1994; Swain, 1985) necessary both to practice language development and to evaluate whether that output is adequate for communication. Again, this is best done through communication activities that require negotiation of meaning.
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Differences between a Virtual Class and WTI
When I started this study, I expected a regular class that had a beginning and ending date, and with set lessons and assignments. I found, instead, a class that had a beginning three years previously, but had no ending in sight.
Although a description of the WTI community that I studied can be found in Chapter 4: Controlled Chaos, the following is a brief description of what I expected to find as compared to what actually occurred. Experience in online teaching in ESL, as well as what I had seen in the literature related to online ESL courses led me to believe that I would find a more-or-less traditional class that had been transferred to the Internet. In other words, teachers would instruct students on the proper use of specific language skills (e.g. grammar, writing, reading comprehension). Students would enroll in a class for a set period of time (a term) and carry out a set number of assignments. Teachers would correct the assignments and return them to the students with comments on how to improve. Evaluation would occur at various times, either through tests or through written assignments. At the end of the term, the teacher would give the student a grade or other means of certifying how much he/she had improved during the term.
That is not what I found. Students join WTI at any time and remain as long as they are interested in the class. While WTI officially has three assignments (participate in the chat sessions, participate in the discussion list, and create a Web page), students are expected to carry out a minimum of only one of these assignments. Even the “assignments” that are posted to the e-class are considered optional. But this does not mean that the students do not attend the class. Since the atmosphere is relaxed, with no evaluations, students tend to participate actively in the discussion list and, when their time zone permits, in the chat sessions. Students who cannot participate in the weekly chat sessions still participate in out-of-class sessions using one of the three most common Instant Messaging systems.
In the traditional use of the word teacher, the teacher holds some type of authority over the students. He/she is expected to evaluate the students and give them a final grade. Students and teachers are often seen as facing each other over a desk that places limits on what is and is not permitted. In WTI, there is no teacher-student dichotomy. Teachers are considered tutors based on 1) their knowledge of English, and 2) a demonstrated interest in participating in the community. Students are considered friends (not students) and are often teachers when a topic comes up that they are experts in. For example, if a student is also a computer programmer, he/she may be a teacher when the class starts discussing a topic related to computers. Further, many of the students are also teachers in their own countries. They are in the class not to learn English, but to improve it and practice “speaking” with native English speakers. I found, instead of a traditional class that had been transferred to the Internet, a group of friends who would meet weekly to discuss topics of interest, and who showed an interest in each others’ well being. In other words, there was a sense of community present that my experience did not prepare me to expect in this type of class.
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The following terms are used throughout the study. These working definitions should make them easier to understand.
Asynchronous Communication
Asynchronous communication does not require that the communicators be present and online at the same time. The two main varieties are e-mail, where the message is delivered to the recipient’s mail box to be read when he/she logs on, and bulletin boards (BBS) where the message is posted. In this case, the person who wants to read the message must go to the specific address of the bulletin board and log on to read it (Berge, 1993).
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the amount of information that can be carried through a phone line, cable line, satellite feed, etc. As a means of communication becomes closer to face-to-face communication, it requires more bandwidth.
Bulletin Boards
Bulletin boards (also known as news groups) are an example of asynchronous communication (the other being email). While email is push media (the messages are sent directly to the recipient), bulletin boards use pull media. The recipient must access the bulletin board to read and reply to the messages.
Chaos Navigation
Chaos Navigation occurs when people in a chat room are communicating in many channels, as well as in several threads of content at the same time. In this study, chaos navigation is also called controlled chaos and intuitive controlled chaos .
Chat refers to “synchronous communication between two or more people, using the keyboard as the means of communication” (Dudeney, 2000, p. 156).
Chat clients are computer programs used for chat sessions. They may be based on text, voice, or a combination. Different chat rooms use different clients.
Krashen (1985) defines comprehensible input as language that students are able to understand. If i represents students’ linguistic competence, then i+1 is the language a bit beyond the current level, which still can be understood with the aid of contextual, social assistance, or both. This is the linguistic parallel to Vygotsky’s (1978) Zone of Proximal Development. Long (1983), Pica and Doughty (1987), Pica, Lincoln-Porter, Paninos, and Linnell (1996), and Swain (1985), have refined Krashen’s definition of comprehensible input to include an i+1 obtained by negotiated interaction. This parallels another of Vygotsky’s concepts, stressing the basic social nature of learning. Without a caregiver (an adult or more advanced peer) trying to make meaning out of the students’ output (oral or written), the students have little chance to improve current linguistic competencies.
After Krashen posited comprehensible input as a prerequisite for second/foreign language acquisition, researchers began to focus on comprehensible output as an opportunity for students to attend to the various elements of the target language. Output that is not comprehensible calls for negotiation and for further input to help the student along the interlanguage continuum (Pica, 1994; Swain, 1985).
Distance Education is an educational process in which the majority of the instruction occurs when student and instructor are separated in space and/or time (Hoffman 1996; Keegan, 1990; Saba, 1997; Sherry, 1996; Steiner, 1995: Tripathi, personal communication, November 11, 1997; Verduin and Clark, 1991). Although Steiner (1995) explains that the terms distance learning and distance education are not interchangeable since “distance learning is the result of distance education” (p 1), many practitioners see them as synonymous. In this study, I will use these terms interchangeably. For the purposes of this study, I will use the definition developed by the Interregional Committee on Distance Learning, the committee charged with developing the guidelines for the regional accreditation of distance learning programs. This committee defines distance education as a
formal educational process in which the majority of the instruction occurs when student and instructor are not in the same place. Instruction may be synchronous or asynchronous. Distance education may employ correspondence study, or audio, video, or computer technologies (Interregional Committee on Distance Learning 1997).
Short for Electronic Class. An e-class is a class offered via electronic means. While it may be offered using any online media, in the case of WTI, it is the discussion list portion of the class.
Studying English as a Foreign Language occurs in a non-English speaking environment. The students in an EFL class usually all speak the same first language so there is no natural reason to use the target language. In addition, students of EFL typically have exposure to English only a few hours a week, usually in the confines of an institutional setting (Brown, 1993).
Emoticons are “facial expressions made using punctuation. These are used in email and chat to communicate feelings or emotions. They must be viewed sideways to get the full effect” (Dudeney, 2000,p. 163).
ESL
Studying English as a Second Language occurs in classroom surrounded by an English speaking environment. Students must use English outside of school to function in the host community. In addition, the students in an ESL class often come from various native language backgrounds, so they must use English to communicate with the teacher and with peers (Brown, 1993).
F2F
Face-to-face. This is the common term for the traditional, or regular, classroom. In the F2F classroom, the instructor and students are physically present at the same place and time.
Instant messaging is a chat technology that allows two people to send short messages to each other thereby holding a synchronous conversation. After downloading the I. M. client onto the computer, the user adds the user-IDs of his/her friends. Each user of a specific I. M. client is able to see when his/her contacts are on-line and send them instant messages.
Internet
The Internet is an interconnection of computer networks covering the entire world in such a way that any computer connected to it can share information with any other computer also connected to it. While the most common impression of the Internet is the World Wide Web, it also includes other features such as file transfer protocol (FTP), electronic mail (e-mail), Telnet, and Chat. Each of these can be used in online teaching.
MOO
Multiuser Object Oriented. MOO is a form of synchronous communication among many people at the same time in which the communicators can “create” rooms, furniture, and other objects. It differs from other forms of synchronous communication such as IRC and Chat, in that anything created in any session continues to exist from that moment on and can be used by others who log on to the particular MOO in which this object or space has been created.
To lurk is to subscribe to a discussion list or newsgroup but not post. Although the word lurk has negative connotations in real-life situations, it is generally recommended for a person to lurk on a discussion list or newsgroup until he/she has learned the norms of the group.
Online Class/Course
For the purposes of this study, an online class or course is defined as a formal course of study either with or without credit, by an institution, accredited or non-accredited, in which the Internet is the primary means of instruction, as well as the primary means of communication between the instructor and the student, and/or between two or more students.
According to Mann (1978) and McMillian and Chavis (1986), a sense of community comes from the feelings of belonging that members have to their community. This sense of community is unique to each community and is what makes a community different from more than just a group.
Synchronous communication requires that the interacting communicators both be present online at the same time. This may be one-to-one communication as in the talk, phone, or chat facilities that many systems offer or may be one-to-many as in Internet Relay Chat (IRC), chat rooms, and MOOs that are becoming common. (Berge, 1993)
The URL, or Uniform Resource Locator, is an Internet address. It includes the exact address of every document on the Internet, including the type of document it is.
Virtual Community
Rheingold defines virtual communities as “cultural aggregations that emerge when enough people bump into each other often enough in cyberspace” (1993b, p. 1). Expanding on this definition, he states that a virtual community is
A group of people who may or may not meet one another face-to-face, and who exchange words and ideas through the mediation of computer bulletin boards and networks. In cyberspace, we chat and argue, engage in intellectual discourse, perform acts of commerce, exchange knowledge, share emotional support, make plans, brainstorm, gossip, feud, fall in love, find friends and lose them, play games and metagames, flirt, create a little high art and a lot of idle talk. We do everything people do when people get together, but we do it with words on computer screens, leaving our bodies behind (1993a, p. 58).
Similarly, Blanchard (2000) and B. Mason (1999) see them as groups of people who interact primarily through Computer Mediated Communication and who have developed a sense of belonging and attachment to each other even though they rarely, if ever, interact with each other face-to-face.
According to Hine (1998, 2000a, 2000b) and B. Mason (1996, 1999) a virtual ethnography is an ethnography that “treats cyberspace as the ethnographic reality” (B. Mason, 1996, p 4). What differentiates a virtual ethnography from a regular ethnography is that it occurs completely online.
topThis study is arranged as follows. Chapter 1 sets the background for the study. It begins with an explanation of why I selected my topic. Then it describes my role in the study, including and explanation of why I selected participant observation. It goes on to state the problem being studied and discuss the significance of the study. After that, it gives an overview of the research questions and describes my assumptions and the limitations of the study. After giving a brief overview of the differences between what I expected to find and what I expected to find, the chapter ends with definitions of terms used throughout the study.
Chapter 2 is a review of the literature related to the use of the Internet in teaching Languages and to virtual ESL/EFL classes and virtual communities. It concludes with a review of the literature related to virtual ethnographies.
Chapter 3 describes the methodological approach behind my study. It describes the nature of my study and outlines my considerations as a participant observer.
Chapter 5 discusses the six major findings/insights as related both to virtual language community building and to conducting virtual interviews. It ends with recommendations for both developing and managing virtual language classes and for conducting virtual interviews.